Clinical Guides: Health Research Study Designs: Qualitative Studies

Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that explores people's experiences, perceptions, and social contexts through non-numerical data. It typically involves methods such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis to understand complex phenomena in depth.

Why is it important?

It provides insights into how individuals experience health conditions, treatments, and healthcare services.
It helps researchers understand the broader social, cultural, and behavioural determinants of health.
Findings can inform healthcare policies, patient-centred interventions, and improvements in service delivery.
Unlike quantitative research, which tests hypotheses, qualitative research often helps generate new theories and frameworks.
It can add depth to statistical findings by explaining the ‘why’ behind trends seen in quantitative data.

Mixed methods studies

Mixed methods studies combine qualitative and quantitative research approaches to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a research problem. This approach allows researchers to integrate numerical data (e.g., surveys, statistics) with qualitative insights (e.g., interviews, focus groups).

Research Methods

Research methods, or study methods, are the ways in which data can be collected for qualitative research. The below document contains definitions, strengths, limitations, and examples of different types of research methods.

Qualitative research methods

Recommended resources:

CASP. (n.d.). Qualitative studies checklist.
Ingham-Broomfield, B. (2015). A nurses’ guide to Qualitative Research. Australian journal of advanced nursing, 32(3).
Pope, C., & Mays, N. (1995). Reaching the parts other methods cannot reach: an introduction to qualitative methods in health and health services research. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 311(6996), 42–45.

Yale University. (2025) Fundamentals of Qualitative Research Methods: What is Qualitative Research?

Phenomenology

Phenomenological research is a qualitative research approach that explores people's lived experiences to understand how they perceive and make sense of a particular phenomenon. It focuses on subjective meaning, aiming to capture deep, rich insights into human experiences rather than measuring variables.

Limitations include suitability for specific research questions, potential participant communication barriers, time-consuming data collection and analysis, risk of researcher bias in interpretation, and limited generalisability.

Why is it important?

It provides a deep understanding of how patients, healthcare providers, or communities experience illness, treatment, or healthcare systems.
Insights from phenomenology can help healthcare professionals design more compassionate and effective care models.
It helps explore emotional, psychological, and social aspects of health that quantitative methods might overlook.
This approach is valuable in Indigenous health research and other areas where individuals’ perspectives may not be well understood.

How to conduct phenomenological research

Search the literature to identify a phenenomenon to study
- You may need assistance from a librarian.
Secure approval
Select participants
Obtain informed consent
Collect data
- Use observation, interviews, focus groups and/or documents.
Analyse the data using a thematic or interpretative method
Present findings in a way that captures the shared meaning of the experience across participants
Write up the research
Publish your research

Examples
Dorney, P., et al. (2021). A Phenomenological Study: Student Nurses' Perceptions of Care of the Dying in a Hospice-Based Facility. Journal of hospice and palliative nursing, 23(2), 162–169.
Lee, E. Y., et al. (2021). A phenomenological study on the experiences of patient transfer from the intensive care unit to general wards. PloS one, 16(7), e0254316.

Recommended resources:

Walker W. (2007). Ethical considerations in phenomenological research. Nurse researcher, 14(3), 36–45.
Wilson A. (2015). A guide to phenomenological research. Nursing standard, 29(34), 38–43.

Research Tube. (2018). Qualitative research: Learn how to conduct phenomenological approach.

Grounded theory

Grounded theory is a qualitative research methodology used to develop theories directly from data rather than testing existing theories. It is an inductive approach, meaning researchers collect and analyse data first, allowing patterns and concepts to emerge organically.

Grounded theory is widely used in health research to explore social processes, behaviours, and interactions.

It is not suitable for applying received theory or testing hypotheses and analysis involves subjective judgement.

Why is it important?

Unlike other research methods that test existing theories, grounded theory builds new theories based on real-world data.
It helps understand how patients, healthcare providers, or communities navigate healthcare systems, illness, and treatment.
Findings from grounded theory studies can inform clinical guidelines, health policies, and interventions.
Grounded theory adapts to new insights as data is collected, making it ideal for studying evolving healthcare challenges.

How to conduct grounded theory research

Search the literature to identify a broad topic to study
- Avoid starting with a fixed hypothesis.
- You may need assistance from a librarian.
Secure approval
Select participants
Obtain informed consent
Collect data
Analyse the data immediately after collection, not at the end
- Code the data
- As analysis progresses, refine the sample based on emerging themes
Continue collecting data until no new themes emerge
Construct a theory that explains the patterns and processes identified in the data
Write up the research
Publish your research

Examples
Andrews, H., et al. (2020). Needing permission: The experience of self-care and self-compassion in nursing: A constructivist grounded theory study. International journal of nursing studies, 101, 103436.
Zhang, F., et al. (2022). A caring leadership model in nursing: A grounded theory approach. Journal of nursing management, 30(4), 981–992.

Recommended resources:

Harris T. (2015). Grounded theory. Nursing standard, 29(35), 32–39.
Noble, H., & Mitchell, G. (2016). What is grounded theory? Evidence-based nursing, 19(2), 34–35.

Research Tube. (2019). Learn how to conduct grounded theory: a qualitative research approach.

Ethnography

Ethnography is a qualitative research method that involves immersing yourself in a specific community, group, or culture to understand their behaviours, beliefs, and interactions.

Ethnography relies on direct observation, interviews, and participation rather than relying solely on self-reported data. It seeks to understand a group’s experiences from their own perspective (emic approach) rather than an outsider’s view (etic approach).

Potential biases arise from the researcher’s cultural perspective. Gaining participant cooperation and rapport can be challenging. Higher costs are involved due to travel, accommodation, and time in the field. Logistical barriers, such as cultural restrictions on access, may limit research feasibility. Findings may have limited generalisability, and researcher presence can influence participant behaviour.

Why is it important?

Provides deep insights into how healthcare is delivered and experienced in everyday settings.
Helps researchers understand how culture, beliefs, and social norms impact health behaviours and access to care.
Findings can guide the development of culturally appropriate healthcare policies and interventions.
Unlike surveys or interviews, participant observation uncovers behaviours that may not be consciously reported.
Essential for understanding Indigenous health, migrant health, and underserved communities by capturing their lived realities.

How to conduct ethnographic research

Search the literature to identify a broad topic to study
- You may need assistance from a librarian.
Secure approval
Select participant group
- Establish rapport and trust with group.
Obtain informed consent
Collect data
- Observe daily routines, interactions, and environments
- Take field notes
- Conduct semi-structured interviews
Analyse the data
- Use thematic or narrative analysis
Present findings
- Ethnography typically uses rich, detailed descriptions rather than just summarising data.
- Findings should tell a story that conveys participants’ experiences authentically.
- Use direct quotes, anecdotes, and case studies to bring the data to life.
Write up the research
Publish your research

Examples
Farzi, S., et al. (2022). Communication culture in cancer nursing care: an ethnographic study. Supportive care in cancer, 30(1), 615–623.
Moreno Lozano, C. (2024). The imperative of teamwork in antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) interventions: insights from an ethnographic study with practitioners in Spain. JAC-antimicrobial resistance, 6(5), dlae133.

Recommended resources:

Conroy T. (2017). A beginner's guide to ethnographic observation in nursing research. Nurse researcher, 24(4), 10–14.
Goodson, L., et al. (2011). An overview of ethnography in healthcare and medical education research. Journal of educational evaluation for health professions, 8, 4.

Research Methods and Statistics. (2016). Ethnography. Qualitative methods. Observation.

Narrative research

Narrative research (or narrative inquiry) is a qualitative research approach that explores and analyses personal stories to understand experiences, identities, and social contexts. It is based on the idea that people make sense of their lives through storytelling, and researchers study these stories to uncover deeper meanings, patterns, and influences.

Researchers must deeply understand participants' experiences to represent them accurately. Data collection and analysis are time-consuming. Participants focus on personal experiences rather than broader social contexts. As the method relies on memory, triangulation is recommended for accuracy.

Why is it important?

Helps to gain insights into lived experiences, particularly in marginalised or underrepresented populations.
Prioritises participants’ perspectives, making it a useful method for culturally sensitive research, such as studies involving Indigenous communities.
Helps understand how individuals construct meaning from their experiences and how their identities evolve over time.
By embedding stories within broader social, cultural, and historical contexts, it reveals the complexities of health challenges and service interactions.
Can be applied across disciplines and combined with other qualitative methods.

How to conduct narrative research

Search the literature to identify a broad topic to study
- You may need assistance from a librarian.
Secure approval
Select participant group
Obtain informed consent
Collect data
- Conduct interviews or focus groups.
Analyse the data
- Use thematic, structural, or narrative synthesis.
Present findings
- Present findings as individual stories, thematic summaries, or composite narratives.
Write up the research
Publish your research

Examples
Cusack, P., et al. (2023). Experiencing restraint: A dialogic narrative inquiry from a service user perspective. International journal of mental health nursing, 32(6), 1724–1734.
Veesart, A., et al. (2022). The lived experience of nursing students who were unsuccessful in an undergraduate nursing program - A narrative inquiry. Nurse education today, 118, 105517.

Recommended resources:

Clandinin, D. J., et al. (2017). Narrative inquiry: a relational research methodology for medical education. Medical education, 51(1), 89–96.
Finlay, J., et al. (2023). Reflexivity and Relational Spaces: Experiences of Conducting a Narrative Inquiry Study With Emerging Adult Women Living With Chronic Pain. Global qualitative nursing research, 10, 23333936231190619.
Wang, C.C., et al. (2015). The power of story: Narrative inquiry as a methodology in nursing research. International Journal of Nursing Sciences, 2(2), 195-198.

Rosenberg, G.R. (2019). Narrative Inquiry Research: Getting Personal.

Participatory action research

Participatory Action Research (PAR) is a collaborative research approach that actively involves participants in the research process to address issues affecting their lives. It is a cyclical and iterative method where researchers and participants co-design, implement, and evaluate actions to create social change. Unlike traditional research, which often studies communities from an external perspective, PAR empowers participants as co-researchers

PAR is time-intensive, requiring ongoing engagement. Researchers must navigate power dynamics to ensure equitable participation. Ethical complexity demands continuous consent, transparency, and respect for community knowledge. Traditional evaluation methods may not fully capture its impact.

Why is it important?

Shifts research from an extractive model to a participatory one, ensuring those affected by an issue have control over the research.
Focuses on action-oriented solutions rather than just understanding problems.
Ideal for working with Indigenous communities, minority groups, or marginalised populations, as it respects local knowledge and lived experiences.
Strengthens relationships between researchers, participants, and policymakers by fostering mutual respect and shared decision-making.
Findings are directly applicable and useful for the community because they are developed collaboratively.

How to conduct PAR

Search the literature to identify a broad topic to study
- You may need assistance from a librarian.
Secure approval
Select participant group
- Build rapport and partnerships
Obtain informed consent
Co-develop data collection methods
Analyse the data together
- Use thematic, narrative, or visual methods
Implement action
- Monitor progress
- Reflect and reiterate
Write up the research
Publish your research

Examples
Cardiff, S., et al. (2018). Person-centred leadership: A relational approach to leadership derived through action research. Journal of clinical nursing, 27(15-16), 3056–3069.
Sharmil, H., et al.. (2021). Participatory Action Research-Dadirri-Ganma, using Yarning: methodology co-design with Aboriginal community members. International journal for equity in health, 20(1), 160.

Recommended resources:

Baum, F., et al. (2006). Participatory action research. Journal of epidemiology and community health, 60(10), 854–857.
Cargo, M., et al. (2008). The value and challenges of participatory research: strengthening its practice. Annual review of public health, 29, 325–350.
Young L. (2006). Participatory action research (PAR): a research strategy for nursing? Western journal of nursing research, 28(5), 499–504.

University of North Carolina Gillings School of Global Public Health. (2021). Geni Eng on Community-based Participatory Research.

Historical research

Historical qualitative research methodology examines past events to better understand the present. It uses primary sources.

While historical approaches are quicker and cheaper, primary sources can be more difficult to locate and corroborate.

Why is it important?

Can provide context and understanding for the present.
Allows researchers to track changes over time, identifying patterns and shifts in attitudes, values, and practices.
Could highlight the experiences of those who were historically silenced or excluded.

How to conduct historical research

Search the literature
- You may need assistance from a librarian.
Collect data
- Data may be present in state or organisational archives and records facilities
Analyse the data
- Use thematic or contextual analysis
- Critically evaluate and interpret the information
Present findings
- Construct narratives, identify continuities or changes, and reflect on historical significance.
Write up the research
Publish your research

Examples
Cronin, M. (2020). Anarcha, Betsey, Lucy, and the women whose names were not recorded: The legacy of J Marion Sims. Anaesthesia and intensive care, 48(3_suppl), 6–13.
Ferner, R. E., et al. (2016). Cato Guldberg and Peter Waage, the history of the Law of Mass Action, and its relevance to clinical pharmacology. British journal of clinical pharmacology, 81(1), 52–55.

Recommended resources:

Ahmad, S. (2024). An Introduction to Historical Research Design.
Renjith, V., et al. (2021). Qualitative Methods in Health Care Research. International journal of preventive medicine, 12, 20.
Secord, J. (n.d.). Tools and techniques for historical research.

Gatbonton, R.R. (2021). Qualitative Research Lecture 4: Historical Research.

Case study

A qualitative case study is an in-depth exploration of a single case or a small number of cases, using non-numerical data such as interviews, observations, and documents to understand complex phenomena. It focuses on interpreting meaning, context, and the nuances of the case.

Why is it important?

Case studies allow researchers to explore a case in its real-life context.
They are particularly useful for exploring complex, multifaceted issues that cannot be easily quantified.
Qualitative case studies provide the opportunity to capture and interpret the lived experiences of individuals or groups.
They are particularly important for studying unique or rare cases.
They allow for flexible, adaptive methodologies.

How to conduct a case study

Search the literature to define a topic
- You may need assistance from a librarian.
Choose the cases
Obtain approval
Obtain informed consent
Collect data
- Use interviews, observations, documents, or audiovisual materials.
Analyse the data
- Code the data and identify themes.
Present findings
- Situate your findings within the broader context. What do your results reveal about the case and its environment? Consider any historical, social, political, or cultural influences.
Write up the research
Publish your research

Examples
Lee, H., et al. (2024). Qualitative case study on the disability acceptance experiences of soldiers with disabilities. International journal of qualitative studies on health and well-being, 19(1), 2350081.
Paynter, M., et al. (2023). A qualitative case study of pregnancy and early parenting in Canada's federal prisons for women. PloS one, 18(12), e0294961.

Recommended resources:

Crowe, S. (2011). The case study approach. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 11, 100.
Gaber, J. (2023). Qualitative case studies.
Houghton, C., et al. (2015). Qualitative case study data analysis: an example from practice. Nurse researcher, 22(5), 8–12.
Houghton, C., et al. (2013). Rigour in qualitative case-study research. Nurse researcher, 20(4), 12–17.

E-Learning Qualitative Methods. (2018). Case study research.